2.1.1.1.1.1
Essenes
------
Who
Were the Essenes?
Since
the archaeological discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1946, the word
"Essene" has made its way around the world -- often raising a lot of questions.
Many people were astonished to discover that, two thousand years ago, a
brotherhood of holy men and women, living together in a community, carried
within themselves all of the seeds of Christianity and of future western
civilization. This brotherhood--more or less persecuted and ostracized--would
bring forth people who would change the face of the world and the course
of history. Indeed, almost all of the principal founders of what would
later be called Christianity were Essenes--St. Ann, Joseph and Mary, John
the Baptist, Jesus, John the Evangelist, etc.
The
Essenes considered themselves to be a separate people--not because of external
signs like skin color, hair color, etc., but because of the illumination
of their inner life and their knowledge of the hidden mysteries of nature
unknown to other men. They considered themselves to be also a group of
people at the center of all peoples--because everyone could become part
of it, as soon as they had successfully passed the selective tests.They
thought, and rightly so, that they were the heirs of God's sons and daughters
of old, the heirs to their great ancient civilization. They possessed their
advanced knowledge and worked assiduously in secret for the triumph of
the light over the darkness of the human mind.
They
felt that they had been entrusted with a mission, which would turn out
to be the founding of Christianity and of western civilization. They were
supported in this effort by highly evolved beings who directed the brotherhood.
They were true saints, Masters of wisdom, hierophants of the ancient arts
of mastery.
They
were not limited to a single religion, but studied all of them in order
to extract the great scientific principles. They considered each religion
to be a different stage of a single revelation. They accorded great importance
to the teachings of the ancient Chaldeans, of Zoroaster, of Hermes Trismegiste,
to the secret instructions of Moses and of one of the founding Masters
of their order who had transmitted techniques similar to those of Buddhism,
as well as to the revelation of Enoch.
They
possessed a living science of all of these revelations.
Thus,
they knew how to communicate with angelic beings and had solved the question
of the origin of evil on the earth.
One
of their major preoccupations was to protect themselves from any contact
with evil spirits, in order to preserve the purity of their souls. They
knew that they would only be on earth for a short time, and they did not
want to prostitute their eternal souls. It was this attitude, this strict
discipline, this absolute refusal to lie or compromise, that made them
the object of so much persecution through the ages.
The
Essenes considered themselves the guardians of the Divine Teaching. They
had in their possession a great number of very ancient manuscripts, some
of them going back to the dawn of time. A large portion of the School members
spent their time decoding them, translating them into several languages,
and reproducing them, in order to perpetuate and preserve this advanced
knowledge. They considered this work to be a sacred task.
The
Essenes considered their Brotherhood-Sisterhood as the presence on earth
of the Teaching of the sons and daughters of God. They were the light which
shines in the darkness and which invites the darkness to change itself
into light. Thus, for them, when a candidate asked to be admitted to their
School, it meant that, within him, a whole process of awakening of the
soul was set in motion. Such a soul was ready to climb the stairs of the
sacred temple of humanity.
The
Essenes differentiated between the souls which were sleeping, drowsy, and
awakened. Their task was to help, to comfort, and to relieve the sleeping
souls, to try to awaken the drowsy souls, and to welcome and guide the
awakened souls. Only the souls considered as awakened could be initiated
into the mysteries of the Brotherhood-Sisterhood. Then began for them a
path of evolution that could not stop anymore through the cycle of their
incarnations.
Everybody
knew the Brothers and Sisters in white. The Hebrews called them "The School
of Prophets"; and, to the Egyptians, they were "The Healers, The Doctors".
They had property in nearly all of the big cities; and, in Jerusalem, there
was even a door that bore their name: the door of the Essenes. Despite
some fear and joking, due to the rejection of that which one does not know,
the people as a whole felt respect and esteem for the Essenes because of
their honesty, their pacifism, their goodness, their discretion, and their
talent as healers, devoted to the poorest as well as to the richest. They
knew that the greatest Hebrew prophets came from their lineage and their
School.
Moreover,
even if the Brotherhood was very strict about the law of secrecy with regard
to its internal doctrine, it cultivated many points of contact with the
people, notably through places of lodging for the pilgrims from every horizon,
through helpful actions in difficult periods, and especially through the
healing of illnesses. These places of primary teaching and of healing were
located in precise areas where people could go freely.
2.1.1.1.1.2. Qumran
------
 |
The
Ruins of Qumran
The
site of Qumran ruins (Khirbet Qumran) had been occupied at various times
in antiquity. At a low level were found the remains of walls and pottery
from Iron Age II (8-7th centuries BCE). A deep circular cistern also belongs
to this period (centuries later it was incorporated in an elaborate system
of aqueducts and reservoirs). Probably this was the site known as the Biblical
"Ir ha-Melah" - City of Salt.
In
approximately 130 BCE new occupants cleared the circular cistern, added
two rectangular cisterns, constructed a few rooms, and installed two pottery
kilns. 30 years later two- and three-storey buildings were added, and an
elaborated water-collecting system was constructed (incorporated the earlier
ones) consisting of cisterns connected by channels and supplied by aqueduct
from a dam. There is a vast evidence that the manuscripts discovered in
the Qumran caves belonged to the library of the occupants of the site in
this period - a small hermit community referred as the Dead Sea Sect .
During
the Jewish War the place was apparently stormed by Romans and ruined, and
then occupied by a Roman garrison for 20 years. Bar-Kokhba fighters occupied
the ruins in 132-135 CE.
The
main building on the site occupied about 37 square meters, constructed
of large undressed stones, and with a strong tower in the northwestern
corner. On the west side is a long room used apparently as an eating-room.
In the adjacent smaller room over a thousand of ceramic vessels were found.
They may have been manufactured on the spot, since the excavations brought
to light the best preserved pottery thus far found in the Land of Israel.
A first-storey
room in the southwest part of the building was evidently furnished as a
writing-room. Flour mills, a stable, a laundry and various workshops were
also uncovered. The occupants apparently aimed to be as self-sufficient
as possible. There were apparently no sleeping quarters; tents or caves
may have served the occupants for shelter. Near the settlement and separated
from it by a wall there is a large cemetery |
 |
2.1.1.1.1.3 The
Teacher of Righteousness
ABSTRACT:
THE TEACHER OF RIGHTEOUSNESS
by
Ysmena Pentelow
yrp@st-andrews.ac.uk
Bearing
in mind the difficulties faced in interpreting the material, we can make
some suggestions about the role of the Teacher of Righteousness as a mediator
figure.
Damascus
Document:
The
title appears at 1:11 & 20:32 and in a slightly different form at 6:11.
The title "Unique Teacher"/"Teacher of the Community" is also understood
to refer to the Teacher of Righteousness. From 1:11 & Col.20 the Teacher
is seen possibly as the founder the community. The laws and covenant he
established are the community's means of vindication and remain effective
after the Teacher's death. Col.6 anticipates a figure "who will teach righteousness"
in the end time. Is this figure in some way the re-appearance of the historical
Teacher? Or is he an ideal or messianic figure, perhaps modelled on historical
remembrances?
Pesharim:
From
the Pesharim a picture of the Teacher of Righteousness emerges: He is a
priestly leader of a community; in this role he is seen to suffer, perhaps
to face death. His interpretation of scripture is definitive for his community
and may perhaps be understood as his legacy.
A Written
Legacy?
Various
texts have been attributed to the hand of the Teacher - the Temple Scroll,
4QMMT, and various passages in the Hodayoth. None of these mention the
Teacher by name but texts such as 1QH 10 (=2):13 & 32 seem to reflect
incidents recorded in the commentary on Habakkuk (1QHab5:8-11 or 11:1-8).
Identifying
the Teacher of Righteousness?
The
Teacher is generally identified as what his community considers to be the
legitimate high priest. As a priestly figure the Teacher's role as a mediator
would be the maintenance of the comunity's relationship with God, as his
chosen people. It is possible that the title 'Teacher of Righteousness'
refers not to one historical individual but to an office that is to be
filled in the historical realm. Possibly the office itself is an expected
ideal. Alternatively in CD 6 it is the historical Teacher who is awaited-in
the consummation pattern, although whether the material allows for such
an understanding is questionable. Possible background for this view may
have been suggested by Abegg's equation of the author of 4Q427 with the
Teacher: "...as for me [my] office is among the gods..." If the Teacher
is so exalted it might be reasonable to view his activity as extending
beyond his earthly existance, and incorporating his return to the historical
realm.
Jesus
and the Teacher of Righteousness:
There
are a number of similarities between the earthly roles of Jesus and the
Teacher, interpretation of scripture, the establishment of a law which
is the means of salvation; both suffer. After death the followers of both
require further guidence. There are also differences, the Teacher does
not appear to be worshipped, his community does not continue and expand
after his death.
It
is possible that the Teacher of Righteousness could be understood as a
stage in the development of thought that led to the worship of an individual.
The Teacher reveals the prophetic mysteries - of which Jesus is seen to
be the fulfilment. Moreover in 1QHab8:1-3 faith in the Teacher himself,
along with obedience, is a necessary means of salvation. In the NT Jesus
is that means of Salvation.
2.1.1.1.1.4 Library
The
Qumran Library
The
scrolls and scroll fragments recovered in the Qumran environs represent
a voluminous body of Jewish documents, a veritable "library", dating from
the third century B.C.E. to 68 C.E. Unquestionably, the "library," which
is the greatest manuscript find of the twentieth century, demonstrates
the rich literary activity of Second Temple Period Jewry and sheds insight
into centuries pivotal to both Judaism and Christianity. The library contains
some books or works in a large number of copies, yet others are represented
only fragmentarily by mere scraps of parchment. There are tens of thousands
of scroll fragments. The number of different compositions represented is
almost one thousand, and they are written in three different languages:
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.
There
is less agreement on the specifics of what the Qumran library contains.
According to many scholars, the chief categories represented among the
Dead Sea Scrolls are:
Biblical
Those
works contained in the Hebrew Bible. All of the books of the Bible are
represented in the Dead Sea Scroll collection except Esther.
Apocryphal
or pseudepigraphical
Those
works which are omitted from various canons of the Bible and included in
others.
Sectarian
Those
scrolls related to a pietistic commune and include ordinances, biblical
commentaries, apocalyptic visions, and liturgical works.
While
the group producing the sectarian scrolls is believed by many to be the
Essenes, there are other scholars who state that there is too little evidence
to support the view that one sect produced all of the sectarian material.
Also, there are scholars who believe there is a fourth category
of scroll materials which is neither biblical, apocryphal, nor "sectarian."
In their view, such scrolls, which may include "Songs of the the Sabbath
Sacrifice", should be designated simply as contemporary Jewish writing.
Scroll
Fragments from the Qumran Library
Psalms
Tehillim
Phylactery
Tefillin
The
Community Rule Serkeh ha-Yahad
Calendrical
Document Mishmarot
Some
Torah Precepts Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah
Enoch
Hanokh
Hosea
Commentary Pesher Hoshe`a
Prayer
for King Jonathan Tefillah li-Shlomo shel Yonatan ha-Melekh
Leviticus
Va-Yikrah
Songs
of the Sabbath Sacrifice Shirot `Olat ha-Shabbat
Damascus
Document Brit Damesek
The
War Rule Serekh ha-Milhamah
2.1.1.1.2.1
Amoraic period
---
The
emergence of amoraic schools of study.
By
Lawrence H. Schiffman
During
the fluctuations of Jewish fortunes in Palestine and Babylonia, a loosely
organized group of scholars, known collectively as the amoraim ("explainers"
of the Mishnah) continued to expound and develop the rabbinic tradition.
From about 200 to 425 in Palestine and around 200 to 500 in Babylonia,
they were busy discussing and analyzing the Mishnah, as well as baraitot
(tannaitic traditions not included in the Mishnah) and midrashic (interpretive)
traditions, in a process which ultimately led to a series of redacted documents:
the Babylonian Talmud, the Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud, and the amoraic,
exegetical midrashim. This two-part article recounts that process. It is
reprinted with permission from From Text to Tradition: A History of Second
Temple and Rabbinic Judaism (Ktav).
2.1.1.1.2.2 Beit
Hillel
---
Hillel
and Shammai - Jewish Virtual Library
Rabbi
Hillel was born to a wealthy family in Babylonia, but came to Jerusalem
without the financial support of his family and supported himself as a
woodcutter. It is said that he lived in such great poverty that he was
sometimes unable to pay the admission fee to study Torah, and because of
him that fee was abolished. He was known for his kindness, his gentleness,
and his concern for humanity. One of his most famous sayings, recorded
in Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers, a tractate of the Mishnah), is "If
I am not for myself, then who will be for me? And if I am only for myself,
then what am I? And if not now, when?" The Hillel organization, a network
of Jewish college student organizations, is named for him.
2.1.1.1.2.3 Beit
Shammai
---
Hillel
and Shammai - Jewish Virtual Library
Rabbi
Shammai was an engineer, known for the strictness of his views. He was
reputed to be dour, quick-tempered and impatient. For example, the Talmud
tells that a gentile came to Shammai saying that he would convert to Judaism
if Shammai could teach him the whole Torah in the time that he could stand
on one foot. Shammai drove him away with a builder's measuring stick! Hillel,
on the other hand, converted the gentile by telling him, "That which is
hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor. That is the whole Torah; the
rest is commentary. Go and study it."
2.1.1.1.2.4 Diaspora
Jewish
Virtual Library
Diaspora
Greek
“scattering.” Often used to refer to the Jewish communities living among
the gentiles outside the “holy land” of Canaan/Israel/Palestine.
2.1.1.1.2.5 Flavius
Josephus (c. A.D. 37-100)
Jewish
Virtual Library
Josephus
or Flavius Josephus
Jewish
general and author in the latter part of the 1st century CE who wrote a
massive history (“Antiquities”) of the Jews and a detailed treatment of
the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it).
2.1.1.1.2.6 Gemara
Jewish
Virtual Library
Gemara
(Heb.,
“completion”). Popularly applied to the Jewish Talmud as a whole, to discussions
by rabbinic teachers on Mishnah, and to decisions reached in these discussions.
In a more restricted sense, the work of the generations of the amoraim
in “completing” Mishnah to produce the Talmuds.
2.1.1.1.2.7 Haggadah
Jewish
Virtual Library
Haggada(h)
(Heb.,
“narration”; see also aggada[h]). In a general sense, in classical Jewish
literature and discussion, what is not halaka legal subject matter) is
(h)aggada (pl. haggadot). Technically, "the Haggada(h)" is a liturgical
manual used in the Jewish Passover Seder.
2.1.1.1.2.8 Halakah
Jewish
Virtual Library
Halaka(h)/Halakha/Halacha
(adj.
halakic). Any normative Jewish law, custom, practice, or rite--or the entire
complex. Halaka is law established or custom ratified by authoritative
rabbinic jurists and teachers. Colloquially, if something is deemed halakhic,
it is considered proper and normative behavior.
2.1.1.1.2.9 Halakot
2.1.1.1.2.10 Mashal
2.1.1.1.2.11 Massorah
2.1.1.1.2.12
Middot
“Middot” is Hebrew for character
traits.
2.1.1.1.2.13 Midrash
Jewish
Virtual Library
Midrash
(pl.
midrashim). From darash, "to inquire," whence it comes to mean “exposition”
(of scripture). Refers to the “commentary” literature developed in classical
Judaism that attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner.
Literary Midrash may focus either on halaka, directing the Jew to specific
patterns of religious practice, or on (h)aggada, dealing with theological
ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, legend,
allegory, animal fables—that is, whatever is not halaka.
2.1.1.1.2.14 Mishnah
Jewish
Virtual Library
Mishnah
(Heb.,
“teaching”). The digest of the recommended Jewish oral halaka as it existed
at the end of the 2nd century and was collated, edited and revised by Rabbi
Judah the Prince. The code is divided into six major units and sixty-three
minor ones. The work is the authoritative legal tradition of the early
sages and is the basis of the legal discussions of the Talmud. See also
pilpul.
2.1.1.1.2.15 Pesher
---
WHAT
IS PESHER?
Several
approaches to scripture analysis may be discovered in first century Hebrew
documents including literalistic, allegorical, midras and pesher. Longman
doubts that these methods were distinguished from one another in the first
century. Of these methods, pesher is of the greatest interest to this study,
principally because Matthew does not lie under the accusation that he interprets
the OT literalistically or allegorically but rather through pesher. Perhaps
Matthew uses midrashic techniques, as many contend, but it can be argued
that first century midrash could be very much akin to the manner in which
Psalmists interpreted the Pentateuch. Early midrash, as defined by Hillel,
is a fairly objective hermeneutical approach.[2] It is the claim that Matthew
is using pesher contemporization of the OT, particularly in ‘fulfillment’
citations, that provides the most serious challenge to those holding to
verbal, plenary inspiration.
The
term pesher means, "to explain." In fact, however, pesher is an application
of OT scripture with little to no concern for the context of the passage
applied. Pesher may refer either to commentaries on the OT found amongst
the Dead Sea scrolls[3] or to the interpretive technique typical of these
commentaries.[4] Pesher interpreters assume that OT authors were speaking
to the contemporary audience. This form of interpretation is tied to a
word, text or OT allusion, which is then related to a present person, place
or thing. The interpretations are generally aloof from the source context
and appear to lack any coherent methodology. According to Lundberg, "This
kind of commentary (pesher) is not an attempt to explain what the Bible
meant when it was originally written, but rather what it means in the day
and age of the commentator, particularly for his own community."[5]
For
instance, in the pesher Habakkuk the writers simply take Habakkuk’s references
to the Chaledeans and apply them to the Romans without any effort to justify
the application. The context of Habakkuk seems to hold little interest
for such interpreters. In the same commentary all the destructive activities
described by Habakkuk are attributed to the ‘wicked priest’ while all the
good things are attributed to the ‘righteous teacher’ – the antagonist
and protagonist typical of Qumran pesher writing. Again, the interpreter
shows little inclination to justify the wholesale substitution of the authorial
intent for that of his community.
2.1.1.1.2.16 Pharisees
Jewish
Virtual Library
Pharisees
(Heb.,
perushim, lit. “separatists” (?); adj. pharisaic). The name given to a
group or movement in early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear.
Many scholars identify them with the later sages and rabbis who taught
the oral and written law; others see them as a complex of pietistic and
zealous separatists, distinct from the proto-rabbis. According to Josephus,
the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of
the dead, in a balance between predestination and free will, in angels
as active divine agents and in authoritative oral law. In the early Christian
materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of Jesus/Joshua
and his followers, and are often linked with “scribes” but distinguished
from the Sadducees.
2.1.1.1.2.17 Philo
(c. 20 B.C. - c. A.D. 50)
Jewish
Virtual Library
Philo
Judeus
(“the
Jew”) of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) prolific Jewish author
in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive evidence for Jewish thought in
the Greco-Roman (“hellenistic”) world outside of Palestine.
2.1.1.1.2.18 Sadducees
Jewish
Virtual Library
Sadducees
An
early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably
arose early in the 2nd century B.C.E. and ceased to exist when the Temple
was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported priestly authority and rejected
traditions not directly grounded in the Pentateuch, such as the concept
of personal, individual life after death. They are often depicted as in
conflict with the Pharisees.
2.1.1.1.2.19 Samaritans
Jewish
Virtual Library
Samaritans
Another
of the numerous sub-groups in early Judaism (see also Sadducees, Pharisees,
Essenes) and residents of the district of Samaria north of Jerusalem and
Judah in what is now Israel. They are said to have recognized only the
Pentateuch as scripture and Mt. Gerizim as the sacred center rather than
Jerusalem. There was ongoing hostility between Samaritans and Judahites.
Samaritan communities exist to the present.
2.1.1.1.2.20 Talmud
Jewish
Virtual Library
Talmud
(Heb.,
“study” or “learning”). Rabbinic Judaism produced two Talmuds: the one
known as the “Babylonian” is the most famous in the western world, and
was completed around the fifth century CE; the other, known as the “Palestinian”
or “Jerusalem” Talmud, was edited perhaps in the early fourth century CE.
Both have as their common core the Mishnah collection of the tannaim, to
which are added commentary and discussion (gemara) by the amoraim (teachers)
of the respective locales. Gemara thus has also become a colloquial, generic
term for the Talmud and its study.
Judaism
101
Talmud
In
addition to the written scriptures we have an "Oral Torah," a tradition
explaining what the above scriptures mean and how to interpret them and
apply the Laws. Orthodox Jews believe G-d taught the Oral Torah to Moses,
and he taught it to others, down to the present day. This tradition was
maintained in oral form only until about the 2d century C.E., when the
oral law was compiled and written down in a document called the Mishnah.
Over
the next few centuries, additional commentaries elaborating on the Mishnah
were written down in Jerusalem and Babylon. These additional commentaries
are known as the Gemara. The Gemara and the Mishnah together are known
as the Talmud. This was completed in the 5th century C.E.
There
are actually two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud.
The Babylonian one is more comprehensive, and is the one most people mean
when they refer to The Talmud. There have been additional commentaries
on the Talmud by such noted Jewish scholars as Rashi and Rambam. Adin Steinsalz
is currently preparing a new edition of the Talmud, with his own commentary
supplementing the Mishnah, Gemara, and Rashi commentaries.
The
Mishnah is divided into six sections called sedarim (in English, orders).
Each seder contains one or more divisions called masekhtot (in English,
tractates). There are 63 masekhtot in the Mishnah. Approximately half of
these masekhtot have been addressed in the Talmud. Although these divisions
seem to indicate subject matter, it is important to note that the Mishnah
and the Talmud tend to be engage in quite a bit of free-association, thus
widely diverse subjects may be discussed in a seder or masekhtah. Below
is the division of the Mishnah into sedarim and masekhtot:
* Zera'im (Seeds), dealing with agricultural laws
o Berakhot
o Peah
o Demai
o Kilayim
o Shebiit
o Terumot
o Maaserot
o Maaser Sheni
o Challah
o Orlah
o Bikkurim
* Mo'ed (Festival), dealing with shabbat and festivals
o Shabbat
o Erubin
o Pesachim
o Sheqalim
o Yoma
o Sukkah
o Besah
o Rosh Hashanah
o Taanit
o Megillah
o Moed Qatan
o Hagigah
* Nashim (Women), dealing with marriage, divorce and contracts
o Yebamot
o Ketubot
o Nedarim
o Nazir
o Sotah
o Gittin
o Qiddushin
* Nezikin (Damages), dealing with tort laws and other financial laws
o Baba Qamma
o Baba Mesia
o Baba Batra
o Sanhedrin
o Makkot
o Shabuot
o Eduyyot
o Avodah Zarah
o Avot (also known as Pirkei Avot, Ethics of the Fathers)
o Horayot
* Kodashim (Holy Things), dealing with sacrifices and the Temple
o Zevachim
o Menachot
o Chullin
o Bekhorot
o Arakhin
o Temurah
o Keritot
o Meilah
o Tamid
o Middot
o Qinnim
* Toharot (Purities), dealing with laws of ritual purity and impurity
o Kelim
o Ohalot
o Negaim
o Parah
o Tohorot
o Miqvaot
o Niddah
o Makhshirin
o Zabim
o Tebul-Yom
o Yadayim
o Uqsin
In
recent times, many observant Jews have taken up the practice of studying
a page of Talmud every day. This practice, referred to as daf yomi, was
started at the First International Congress of the Agudath Yisrael World
Movement in August, 1923. Rav Meir Shapiro, the rav of Lublin, Poland,
proposed uniting people worldwide through the daily study of a page of
Talmud. Daf Yomi is currently in its 11th cycle. A calendar of the cycle
can be found at Daf Yomi Calendar.
2.1.1.1.2.21 Tannaitic
period (before A.D. 70)
Jewish
Virtual Library
Tanna
(Heb.,
“repeater, reciter”; adj. tannaitic, pl. tannaim). A Jewish
sage from the period of Hillel (around the turn of the era) to the compilation
of the Mishnah (200 CE), distinguished from later amoraim. Tannaim were
primarily scholars and teachers. The Mishnah, Tosefta, and halakic Midrashim
were among their literary achievements.
2.1.1.1.2.22 Targumim
Jewish
Virtual Library
Targum
(Heb.,
“translation, interpretation”). Generally used to designate Aramaic translations
of the Jewish scriptures. See also Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums).
2.1.1.1.2.23 Tosephta
Jewish
Virtual Library
Tosefta
(pl.
Tosafot) (Heb., “supplement”). Tannaitic supplements to the Mishnah. Called
beraita (extraneous material) in the Talmud.
--Lecture
Notes for Topic 2.1.1-
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